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In spermatophyte plants, seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of to transport their seeds, including both abiotic vectors, such as the wind, and living (Biotic component) vectors such as birds. Seeds can be dispersed away from the parent plant individually or collectively, as well as dispersed in both space and time.
The patterns of seed dispersal are determined in large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as patterns and species interactions. There are five main modes of seed dispersal: Gravitation, wind, ballistic, water, and by animals. Some plants are serotinous and only disperse their seeds in response to an environmental stimulus.
These modes are typically inferred based on adaptations, such as wings or fleshy fruit. However, this simplified view may ignore complexity in dispersal. Plants can disperse via modes without possessing the typical associated adaptations and plant traits may be multifunctional.
Seed dispersal also allows plants to reach specific habitats that are favorable for survival, a hypothesis known as directed dispersal. For example, Ocotea endresiana (Lauraceae) is a tree species from Latin America which is dispersed by several species of birds, including the three-wattled bellbird. Male bellbirds perch on dead trees in order to attract mates, and often defecate seeds beneath these perches where the seeds have a high chance of survival because of high light conditions and escape from fungal pathogens. In the case of fleshy-fruited plants, seed-dispersal in animal guts (endozoochory) often enhances the amount, the speed, and the asynchrony of germination, which can have important plant benefits.
Seeds dispersed by ants (myrmecochory) are not only dispersed short distances but are also buried underground by the ants. These seeds can thus avoid adverse environmental effects such as fire or drought, reach nutrient-rich microsites and survive longer than other seeds. These features are peculiar to myrmecochory, which may thus provide additional benefits not present in other dispersal modes.
Seed dispersal may also allow plants to colonize vacant habitats and even new geographic regions. Dispersal distances and deposition sites depend on the movement range of the disperser, and longer dispersal distances are sometimes accomplished through diplochory, the sequential dispersal by two or more different dispersal mechanisms. In fact, recent evidence suggests that the majority of seed dispersal events involves more than one dispersal phase.
Witch hazel uses ballistic dispersal without explosive mechanisms by simply squeezing the seeds out at approx. 45 km/h (28 mph).
An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination. Some wind-dispersed plants, such as the dandelion, can adjust their morphology in order to increase or decrease the rate of diaspore detachment. There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For instance, Cody and Overton (1996) found that species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e., larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to the same species on the mainland. Also, Helonias bullata, a species of perennial herb native to the United States, evolved to utilize wind dispersal as the primary seed dispersal mechanism; however, limited wind in its habitat prevents the seeds from successfully dispersing away from its parents, resulting in clusters of population. Reliance on wind dispersal is common among many or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include , where the entire plant (except for the roots) is blown by the wind. Physalis fruits, when not fully ripe, may sometimes be dispersed by wind due to the space between the fruit and the covering calyx, which acts as an air bladder.
The Nymphaeaceae is an example of such a plant. Water lilies' flowers make a fruit that floats in the water for a while and then drops down to the bottom to take root on the floor of the pond. The seeds of can also be dispersed by water. If they grow near oceans, the seeds can be transported by over long distances, allowing the seeds to be dispersed as far as other .
Mangrove trees grow directly out of the water; when their seeds are ripe they fall from the tree and grow roots as soon as they touch any kind of soil. During low tide, they might fall in soil instead of water and start growing right where they fell. If the water level is high, however, they can be carried far away from where they fell. Mangrove trees often make little as dirt and detritus collect in their roots, making little bodies of land.
Seed dispersal via ingestion and defecation by vertebrate animals (mostly birds and mammals), or endozoochory, is the dispersal mechanism for most tree species. Endozoochory is generally a coevolved mutualistic relationship in which a plant surrounds seeds with an edible, nutritious fruit as a good food resource for animals that consume it. Such plants may advertise the presence of food resource by using colour. Birds and mammals are the most important seed dispersers, but a wide variety of other animals, including turtles, fish, and insects (e.g. tree wētā and scree wētā), can transport viable seeds. The exact percentage of tree species dispersed by endozoochory varies between habitats, but can range to over 90% in some tropical rainforests. Seed dispersal by animals in tropical rainforests has received much attention, and this interaction is considered an important force shaping the ecology and evolution of vertebrate and tree populations.Terborgh, J. (1986) "Community aspects of frugivory in tropical forests": in Fleming, T.H.; Estrada, Alejandro (eds.) Frugivory and Seed Dispersal, Advances in Vegetation Science, Vol. 15, Springer, . In the tropics, large-animal seed dispersers (such as tapirs, chimpanzees, black-and-white colobus, toucans and hornbills) may disperse large seeds that have few other seed dispersal agents. The extinction of these large from poaching and habitat loss may have negative effects on the tree populations that depend on them for seed dispersal and reduce genetic diversity among trees. Seed dispersal through endozoochory can lead to quick spread of invasive species, such as in the case of prickly acacia in Australia. A variation of endozoochory is regurgitation of seeds rather than their passage in Feces after passing through the entire digestive tract.
Seed dispersal by ants ( myrmecochory) is a dispersal mechanism of many shrubs of the southern hemisphere or understorey herbs of the northern hemisphere. Seeds of myrmecochorous plants have a lipid-rich attachment called the elaiosome, which attracts ants. Ants carry such seeds into their colonies, feed the elaiosome to their larvae and discard the otherwise intact seed in an underground chamber. Myrmecochory is thus a coevolved mutualistic relationship between plants and seed-disperser ants. Myrmecochory has independently evolved at least 100 times in flowering plants and is estimated to be present in at least 11 000 species, but likely up to 23 000 (which is 9% of all species of flowering plants). Myrmecochorous plants are most frequent in the fynbos vegetation of the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, the kwongan vegetation and other dry habitat types of Australia, dry forests and grasslands of the Mediterranean region and northern temperate forests of western Eurasia and eastern North America, where up to 30–40% of understorey herbs are myrmecochorous. Seed dispersal by ants is a mutualistic relationship and benefits both the ant and the plant.
Seed dispersal by bees ( melittochory) is an unusual dispersal mechanism for a small number of tropical plants. As of 2023 it has only been documented in five plant species including Corymbia torelliana, Coussapoa asperifolia subsp. magnifolia, Zygia racemosa, Vanilla odorata, and Vanilla planifolia. The first three are tropical trees and the last two are tropical vines.
Seed predators, which include many rodents (such as squirrels) and some birds (such as jays) may also disperse seeds by hoarding the seeds in hidden caches. The seeds in caches are usually well-protected from other seed predators and if left uneaten will grow into new plants. Rodents may also disperse seeds when the presence of secondary metabolites in ripe fruits causes them to spit out certain seeds rather than consuming them. Finally, seeds may be secondarily dispersed from seeds deposited by primary animal dispersers, a process known as diplochory. For example, dung beetles are known to disperse seeds from clumps of feces in the process of collecting dung to feed their larvae.
Other types of zoochory are chiropterochory (by bats), malacochory (by molluscs, mainly terrestrial snails), ornithochory (by birds) and saurochory (by non-bird sauropsids). Zoochory can occur in more than one phase, for example through diploendozoochory, where a primary disperser (an animal that ate a seed) along with the seeds it is carrying is eaten by a predator that then carries the seed further before depositing it.
Recent research points out that human dispersers differ from animal dispersers by having a much higher mobility, based on the technical means of human transport. On the one hand, dispersal by humans also acts on smaller, regional scales and drives the dynamics of existing biological . On the other hand, dispersal by humans may act on large geographical scales and lead to the spread of invasive species.
Humans may disperse seeds by many various means and some surprisingly high distances have been repeatedly measured. Examples are: dispersal on human clothes (up to 250 m), on shoes (up to 5 km), or by cars (regularly ~ 250 m, single cases > 100 km). Humans can unintentionally transport seeds by car, which can carry the seeds much greater distances than other conventional methods of dispersal. Soil on cars can contain viable seeds. A study by Dunmail J. Hodkinson and Ken Thompson found that the most common seeds carried by vehicle were Plantago major ( Plantago major), Poa annua ( Poa annua), Poa trivialis ( Poa trivialis), stinging nettle ( Urtica dioica) and wild chamomile ( Matricaria discoidea).
Deliberate seed dispersal also occurs as seed bombing. This has risks, as it may introduce genetically unsuitable plants to new environments.
In addition, the speed and direction of wind are highly influential in the dispersal process and in turn the deposition patterns of floating seeds in stagnant water bodies. The transportation of seeds is led by the wind direction. This affects colonization when it is situated on the banks of a river, or to wetlands adjacent to streams relative to the given wind directions. The wind dispersal process can also affect connections between water bodies. Essentially, wind plays a larger role in the dispersal of waterborne seeds in a short period of time, days and seasons, but the ecological process allows the phenomenon to become balanced throughout a time period of several years. The time period over which the dispersal occurs is essential when considering the consequences of wind on the ecological process.
Humans
Dispersal by humans ( Hemerochory) used to be seen as a form of dispersal by animals. Its most widespread and intense cases account for the planting of much of the land area on the planet, through agriculture. In this case, human societies form a long-term relationship with plant species, and create conditions for their growth.
Consequences
Seed dispersal has many consequences for the ecology and evolution of plants. Dispersal is necessary for species migrations, and in recent times dispersal ability is an important factor in whether or not a species transported to a new habitat by humans will become an invasive species. Dispersal is also predicted to play a major role in the origin and maintenance of species diversity. For example, myrmecochory increased the rate of diversification more than twofold in plant groups in which it has evolved, because myrmecochorous lineages contain more than twice as many species as their non-myrmecochorous sister groups. Dispersal of seeds away from the parent organism has a central role in two major theories for how biodiversity is maintained in natural ecosystems, the Janzen-Connell hypothesis and recruitment limitation. Seed dispersal is essential in allowing forest migration of flowering plants. It can be influenced by the production of different fruit morphs in plants, a phenomenon known as heterocarpy. These fruit morphs are different in size and shape and have different dispersal ranges, which allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances and adapt to different environments. The distances of the dispersal also affect the kernel of the seed. The lowest distances of seed dispersal were found in , whereas the longest were in dry landscapes.
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